# All Questions

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### What does 2 Year Annualized mean compared to 1 Year Annualized

I am looking at a company's financial report and there is a table in it that lists returns over different annualized periods. It ranges from 1 year to 20 years. Would a 2 year return in this table be ...
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### Electricity market : how to design an optimal hedging strategy using spot and futures markets for an industrial consumer?

Here is the problem : we should adopt the point of view of an industrial company which purchases electricity as an input in its production line and which wants to achieve the following two goals : -...
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### Understanding the conditioning in a GARCH process

In a GARCH model like the following $$y_t=\sigma_tz_t,\\ \sigma_t^2=\omega(1-\alpha-\beta)+\alpha y_{t-1}^2+\beta \sigma_{t-1}^2$$ where $z_t$ is assumed to be iidN(0,1), we say that conditional on ...
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### Which more topic should be covered in my undergraduate program? [closed]

Below is the topics covered in my undergraduate economics program. I want to know which course should I take to get a full overview of topics in finance today. Econometrics Micro, Macro Economics ...
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### Why does [dz(t)]^2 converge to dt over infinitesimally short time periods?

I have some trouble understanding a chapter in George Pennacchi textbook "Asset Pricing". Here the author shows that the square of a Wiener Process $[dz(t)]^2$ converges to $dt$ for infinitesimally ...
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### Intuitive understanding of Black-Scholes pricing

The Black-Scholes formula entails market completeness, so the price of an option is only the cost associated with dynamically hedging the option. Where does this cost come from? I don't see how ...
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### What is the tau parameter in the Black-Litterman model?

Could someone please provide me with a clear and concise definition of the $\tau$ parameter in the Black-Litterman model? It seems one is rather hard to come by. I understand it to be the 'weight on ...
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### investors hold efficient portfolios because generally they are risk averse

I'm trying to find a concept on this question,in my understanding investors differ on risk preference,the question said investors hold efficient portfolios because they are generally risk averse? ...
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### Basis Risk for Futures/Options

I am just reading about basis risk. It is being described as risk of the price of the hedging instrument not fluctuating the same as the instrument itself. I was just wondering, if we bought a ...
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Did value of ratio between informed and uninformed traders at market, making difference to profitability of short-term directional trading on that market? My guess is yes and better play short-term ...
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### The option values are different from two r package - foptions,rquantlib

The results are very different.I know the code from quantlib and the result of quantlib seem right(close to market price). Is there anyone know why the value from fOptions is so large or fOptions used ...
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### Controling ex-post volatility by ex-ante limits

In the context of mutual funds the KID directive forces us to calculate 5 year ex-post volatility of a (market) fund (weekly returns). Thus each week we look back in the past and calculate volatility (...
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### Intuition behind interest rate models

I am modelling the 3M yield of US Treasuries using an ARMA/ GARCH approach. Most interest rate models (e.g. Vasicek) describe the process as follows: $r_{t}-r_{t-1} = some ARMA+ \epsilon_t$ ...
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### Is the market really Normal. Is Implied Volatility Historically Correct?

Ok. So as of 6/10/2014's market close the SPY was 195.6 and the VIX closed at a ridiculous recent low of 10.99. Now because the VIX (IV) is the implied volatility of 1 month contracts on the SPX and ...
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### BInary Option implied volaltility

How is implied vol calculated if the quoted prices are out of the range for any possible volatility? E.g. Current quote on CBOE for options expiring on Aug 16, 2014 ...
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### Is node.js being used in systematic trading software?

I have a project where I would like to track some tick data and create some indicators to follow it. I am thinking of using Node.js for this project, but I would like to know from those in industry if ...
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### VaR mapping - Forward Foreign Currency Contract

I have a question about VaR mapping for FX forwards. Please bear with me while I outline the problem. Philippe Jorion's book discusses VaR mapping; a means to break down complex instruments into ...
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### PDF Calculation by Fourier Inversion of Characteristic Function for Affine Intensity Process in Matlab

I'm trying to use the Fourier inversion formula to plot the PDF of an Affine Stochastic Intensity Reduced Form Credit Model, given its characteristic function. The characteristic function of an ...
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### calculate gamma value using finite difference method

I try to use the finite difference method to get the approximately gamma value, but there is an issue I can't solve. First, I set $h$ to 1 basis point of underlying asset value, but the result is not ...
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### Estimating the Hurst exponent in short terms in developed markets

In the Proceedings of the Estonian Academy of Sciences, Physics and Mathematics (2003), I saw the following sentence: Surprisingly, in the case of developed markets, short-term $H$ results showed ...
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### Directional/Non-Directional Risk

Can someone explain to me what is direction/non-directional risk? Went through few sites but couldn't understand much.
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### Is there a step-by-step guide for calculating portfolio VaR using monte carlo simulations

I am trying to determine a step-by-step algorithm for calculating a portfolio's VaR using monte carlo simulations. It seems to me that the literature for this is extraordinarily opaque for something ...
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