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Orthogonality and independence are different concepts. The concepts are the same for Wiener processes because in the context of normal random variables, independence is equivalent to orthogonality (i.e. uncorrelatedness) Independence is the standard definition for probability. Let $\mathcal{F}, \mathcal{G}$ be the sigma algebras generated by two ...

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The convexity of the exponential function of the stochastic variable $W$ makes its expectation greater than the exponentiation of the expectation of $W$. This is an example of Jensen's inequality, $E[e^{\sigma W}]> e^{\sigma E[W]}=1$. $\sigma$ can be interpreted as the magnitude of the convexity of the exponential function. This can be seen by Taylor ...

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I will try to answer this a bit differently. The rigorous answer: because Ito calculus tells us that we need the second order term. Look at $$S_t = S_0\exp(\mu t + \sigma B_t).$$ Assume that $S_0$ is known and fixed and look at by Ito's formula $$d(S_t/S_0) = \mu dt + \sigma B_t + \frac{\sigma^2}{2} dt.$$ Then with some abuse of notation: $$... 3 Autocorrelation is the correlation of a series with itself. Suppose X = {X_1, X_2, X_3, ...} is your time series. Then the autocorrelation between X_t amd X_s is:$$ \frac{E[(X_t-\mu_t)(X_s-\mu_s)]}{\sigma_t \sigma_s} $$This can be simplified quite a lot if the series you have is stationary (a common assumption), in which case the autocorrelation ... 3 A key property of Brownian motion is independent increments. So if x-1 > y, then$$ \mathbb{E}[\Delta W_x \Delta W_y] = 0 because the time intervals [x-1,x] and [y-1,y] do not overlap. If they do overlap, i.e. x-1 \leq y < x, then \begin{align} \mathbb{E}[\Delta W_x \Delta W_y] =&\ \mathbb{E}[(W_x - W_{x-1}) (W_y-W_{y-1})] \\ =&\ ... 2S_t = S_0\exp((r-\frac{\sigma^2}{2})t+\sigma W_t)$$is not yet a martingale for it is not dirftless. From a probabilistic point of vew the "drift adjustment" comes into play so that the expected value of S_t will be e^{rt} rathern than e^{(r+0.5\sigma^2)t}. For the expected value of a log-normaly distributed variable with mean \mu and vol ... 1 Bond Price Dynamics I do not know the source of the bond dynamics you show above but seeing how we are dealing with an affine model there is a very elegant way to derive those. Due to the model being affine the bond price is given by$$P(t,T)=A(t,T)e^{-r(t)B(t,T)} you can find the exact formulas for $A(t,T)$ and $B(t,T)$ in this document (or just read ...

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you hypothesize that your data is generated by the following process: $y_t=\phi_0+\sum_{k=1}^P\phi_ky_{t-k}+\varepsilon_t$, where $\phi_k$ are your autocorrelation coefficients, and $\varepsilon_T$ - random errors. Next, you estimate your $\phi_t$ using one of the methods of estimation of autoregressive processes AR(P) of order P, e.g. see AR(P), there's no ...

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1.) Autocorrelation is the correlation of a time series against the lagged version of itself. 2). First autocorrelation is the correlation of the time series against the lag(1) version of itself. Let's look at the example below Period_Numbers = [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10] Time_Series = [10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100] First Autocorrelation is ...

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